Question

I have been playing with vectors and matrices where the size is encoded in their type, using the new DataKinds extension. It basically goes like this:

data Nat = Zero | Succ Nat

data Vector :: Nat -> * -> * where
    VNil :: Vector Zero a
    VCons :: a -> Vector n a -> Vector (Succ n) a

Now we want typical instances like Functor and Applicative. Functor is easy:

instance Functor (Vector n) where
    fmap f VNil = VNil
    fmap f (VCons a v) = VCons (f a) (fmap f v)

But with the Applicative instance there is a problem: We don’t know what type to return in pure. However, we can define the instance inductively on the size of the vector:

instance Applicative (Vector Zero) where
    pure = const VNil
    VNil <*> VNil = VNil

instance Applicative (Vector n) => Applicative (Vector (Succ n)) where
    pure a = VCons a (pure a)
    VCons f fv <*> VCons a v = VCons (f a) (fv <*> v)

However, even though this instance applies for all vectors, the type checker doesn’t know this, so we have to carry the Applicative constraint every time we use the instance.

Now, if this applied only to the Applicative instance it wouldn’t be a problem, but it turns out that the trick of recursive instance declarations is essential when programming with types like these. For instance, if we define a matrix as a vector of row vectors using the TypeCompose library,

type Matrix nx ny a = (Vector nx :. Vector ny) a

we have to define a type class and add recursive instance declarations to implement both the transpose and matrix multiplication. This leads to a huge proliferation of constraints we have to carry around every time we use the code, even though the instances actually apply to all vectors and matrices (making the constraints kind of useless).

Is there a way to avoid having to carry around all these constraints? Would it be possible to extend the type checker so that it can detect such inductive constructions?

Answer 1

The definition of pure is indeed at the heart of the problem. What should its type be, fully quantified and qualified?

pure :: forall (n :: Nat) (x :: *). x -> Vector n x            -- (X)

won’t do, as there is no information available at run-time to determine whether pure should emit VNil or VCons. Correspondingly, as things stand, you can’t just have

instance Applicative (Vector n)                                -- (X)

What can you do? Well, working with the Strathclyde Haskell Enhancement, in the Vec.lhs example file, I define a precursor to pure

vec :: forall x. pi (n :: Nat). x -> Vector {n} x
vec {Zero}    x = VNil
vec {Succ n}  x = VCons x (vec n x)

with a pi type, requiring that a copy of n be passed at runtime. This pi (n :: Nat). desugars as

forall n. Natty n ->

where Natty, with a more prosaic name in real life, is the singleton GADT given by

data Natty n where
  Zeroy :: Natty Zero
  Succy :: Natty n -> Natty (Succ n)

and the curly braces in the equations for vec just translate Nat constructors to Natty constructors. I then define the following diabolical instance (switching off the default Functor instance)

instance {:n :: Nat:} => Applicative (Vec {n}) where
  hiding instance Functor
  pure = vec {:n :: Nat:} where
  (<*>) = vapp where
    vapp :: Vec {m} (s -> t) -> Vec {m} s -> Vec {m} t
    vapp  VNil          VNil          = VNil
    vapp  (VCons f fs)  (VCons s ss)  = VCons (f s) vapp fs ss

which demands further technology, still. The constraint {:n :: Nat:} desugars to something which requires that a Natty n witness exists, and by the power of scoped type variables, the same {:n :: Nat:} subpoenas that witness explicitly. Longhand, that’s

class HasNatty n where
  natty :: Natty n
instance HasNatty Zero where
  natty = Zeroy
instance HasNatty n => HasNatty (Succ n) where
  natty = Succy natty

and we replace the constraint {:n :: Nat:} with HasNatty n and the corresponding term with (natty :: Natty n). Doing this construction systematically amounts to writing a fragment of a Haskell typechecker in type class Prolog, which is not my idea of joy so I use a computer.

Note that the Traversable instance (pardon my idiom brackets and my silent default Functor and Foldable instances) requires no such jiggery pokery

instance Traversable (Vector n) where
  traverse f VNil         = (|VNil|)
  traverse f (VCons x xs) = (|VCons (f x) (traverse f xs)|)

That’s all the structure you need to get matrix multiplication without further explicit recursion.

TL;DR Use the singleton construction and its associated type class to collapse all of the recursively defined instances into the existence of a runtime witness for the type-level data, from which you can compute by explicit recursion.

What are the design implications?

GHC 7.4 has the type promotion technology but SHE still has the singleton construction pi-types to offer. One clearly important thing about promoted datatypes is that they’re closed, but that isn’t really showing up cleanly yet: the constructability of singleton witnesses is the manifestation of that closedness. Somehow, if you have forall (n :: Nat). then it’s always reasonable to demand a singleton as well, but to do so makes a difference to the generated code: whether it’s explicit as in my pi construct, or implicit as in the dictionary for {:n :: Nat:}, there is extra runtime information to sling around, and a correspondingly weaker free theorem.

An open design question for future versions of GHC is how to manage this distinction between the presence and absence of runtime witnesses to type-level data. On the one hand, we need them in constraints. On the other hand, we need to pattern-match on them. E.g., should pi (n :: Nat). mean the explicit

forall (n :: Nat). Natty n ->

or the implicit

forall (n :: Nat). {:n :: Nat:} =>

? Of course, languages like Agda and Coq have both forms, so maybe Haskell should follow suit. There is certainly room to make progress, and we’re working on it!