Question

In terms of scope? Actual implementation in memory? The syntax? For eg, if (let a 1) Is ‘a’ a variable or a symbol?

Answer 1

Jörg’s answer points in the right direction. Let me add a bit to it.

I’ll talk about Lisps that are similar to Common Lisp.

Symbols as a data structure

A symbol is a real data structure in Lisp. You can create symbols, you can use symbols, you can store symbols, you can pass symbols around and symbols can be part of larger data structures, for example lists of symbols. A symbol has a name, can have a value and can have a function value.

So you can take a symbol and set its value.

(setf (symbol-value 'foo) 42)

Usually one would write (setq foo 42), or (set 'foo 42) or (setf foo 42).

Symbols in code denoting variables

But!

(defun foo (a)
  (setq a 42))

or

(let ((a 10))
   (setq a 42))

In both forms above in the source code there are symbols and a is written like a symbol and using the function READ to read that source returns a symbol a in some list. But the setq operation does NOT set the symbol value of a to 42. Here the LET and the DEFUN introduce a VARIABLE a that we write with a symbol. Thus the SETQ operation then sets the variable value to 42.

Lexical binding

So, if we look at:

(defvar foo nil)

(defun bar (baz)
  (setq foo 3)
  (setq baz 3))

We introduce a global variable FOO.

In bar the first SETQ sets the symbol value of the global variable FOO. The second SETQ sets the local variable BAZ to 3. In both case we use the same SETQ and we write the variable as a symbol, but in the first case the FOO donates a global variable and those store values in the symbol value. In the second case BAZ denotes a local variable and how the value gets stored, we don’t know. All we can do is to access the variable to get its value. In Common Lisp there is no way to take a symbol BAZ and get the local variable value. We don’t have access to the local variable bindings and their values using symbols. That’s a part of how lexical binding of local variables work in Common Lisp.

This leads for example to the observation, that in compiled code with no debugging information recorded, the symbol BAZ is gone. It can be a register in your processor or implemented some other way. The symbol FOO is still there, because we use it as a global variable.

Various uses of symbols

A symbol is a data type, a data structure in Lisp.

A variable is a conceptual thing. Global variables are based on symbols. Local lexical variables not.

In source code we write all kinds of names for functions, classes and variables using symbols.

There is some conceptual overlap:

(defun foo (bar) (setq bar 'baz))

In the above SOURCE code, defun, foo, bar, setq and baz are all symbols.

DEFUN is a symbol providing a macro.
FOO is a symbol providing a function.
SETQ is a symbol providing a special operator.
BAZ is a symbol used as data. Thus the quote before BAZ.
BAR is a variable. In compiled code its symbol is no longer needed.